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Advanced Vacuum System

Epoxy Mounting System

MasterMet Colloidal Silica

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Final polishing suspensions are specifically formulated to eliminate the residual surface deformation that remains after diamond polishing. Although this deformation may not be visible to the naked eye, it must be eliminated for accurate high-end microscopic analysis. Buehler offers a range of oxide polishing media tailored to different material types and desired analysis outcomes, and considerations such as abrasive particle size of the suspension. Read more about the selection criteria for final polishing medias and their impact.

View Final Polishing Oxide Media TechNote 8 - 4

MasterPrep Alumina

Sol-gel alumina suspension

Final Polishing Suspension

Levigated Alumina

Final Polishing Suspension

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Proper metallographic preparation of fasteners is essential for obtaining a quality sample for evaluation. Fasteners that are properly prepared for analysis can allow for accurate identification of the metal type, assessment of microstructure, and evaluation of fastener quality. Explore critical steps in the preparation process including best practices in sectioning, grinding, polishing, mounting, and etching – and how each step plays a vital role in the analysis preparation.

View Prep of Fasteners: small sized TechNote 8 - 3

Single Saddle Chuck

for IsoMet Low Speed, Isomet 1000

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

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Dive into the importance of metallographic preparation and hardness testing for fasteners. Following proper preparation steps allows for the detailed examination of the microstructure of a fastener, which can be used to identify the type of material, assess the quality of the heat treatment, and detect any defects. Hardness testing provides a measure of the strength of a fastener, which can be used to ensure that it meets the required specifications. This article discusses various preparation steps and hardness evaluation including base metal hardness and decarburization.

View Prep of Fasteners: hardness evaluation TechNote 8 - 2

Wilson® Rockwell® 574

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Micro Hardness Tester

Hardness Testing Software

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The addition of carbon to iron produces steels with varying carbon content, influencing their strength and relative hardness compared to unalloyed steel. Carbon can be added to steels through carburising, a heat treatment process that diffuses carbon into the surface, creating a hard and wear-resistant outer layer. This process forms a martensitic microstructure on the surface, resulting in high hardness values. Explore best practices in the metallographic preparation of fasteners and how sectioning, mounting, grinding, and polishing can lead to effective analysis.

View Prep of Fasteners: carburisation TechNote 8 - 1

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

8-12in [203-305mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Weld Software

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Titanium and its alloys are highly valued in aerospace, defense, marine, and biomedical applications due to their exceptional strength-to-density ratio, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility. However, when it comes to preparing metallographic samples, titanium presents greater difficulty compared to steel. Its ductility and susceptibility to damage, combined with a relatively slower material removal or recovery rate, pose significant challenges in the sample preparation process. Explore techniques and best practices in the metallographic sample preparation process.

View Sample Prep of Ti Grade 2 TechNote 7 - 9

Abrasive Blades

Abrasive Blades for Abrasive Saws

EpoMet

Compression Mounting Compounds

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

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The increasing use of lithium-ion batteries is attributed to their high energy density and extended lifespan, but mishandling may pose risks. One of the challenges in working with lithium-ion batteries is preparing samples for analysis. This article explores sample preparation techniques in sectioning, grinding, polishing, etching, mounting, and examination steps, to prepare lithium-ion battery samples for analysis, while emphasizing the importance of safety precautions.

View Lithium Battery Prep TechNote 7 - 7

Automatic Precision Saw

EpoxiCure

Epoxy Mounting System

EcoMet® 30 Manual

Manual Grinder-Polisher

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Solder joints play a dual role as mechanical and electrical interconnects in micro-electronic packages. Traditionally, tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solder alloys were used for their low cost and low melting points. However, due to environmental concerns, lead was restricted by RoHS directives in 2003. Lead-free alternatives like Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) have emerged, but some opt for cost-effective tin-copper alloys with micro alloy additives. Quantifying these microstructural changes offers insights into reliability testing and acceleration factors. In this technical, our experts explore an improved and efficient technique for the metallographic preparation and analysis of lead-free solder materials.

View Prep of Lead Free Solder TechNote 7 - 5

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

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Discover the power of embracing 'uncertainty' in metallographic measurement to enhance precision and control. In this insightful article, explore the fundamental principles and their practical applications in various industries. Learn how understanding and managing uncertainty can lead to improved product performance, reduced margins, and optimized manufacturing costs. Mathematical analysis quantifies uncertainty, but uncovering potential sources of error and their contributions is vital for enhancing reliability and reproducibility. Delve into the benefits of incorporating uncertainty into standards and methodology to make more precise measurements and achieve incremental improvements. Read the full article to unlock the potential of uncertainty in metallographic measurement.

View Error & Uncertainty in Metallographic Measurement TechNote 7 - 4

MicroCloth

Polishing Cloth

Nikon MA200

Eclipse Microscope

Weld Software

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In the aerospace and power generation industries, where higher performance and increased efficiencies are constantly pursued, thermal spray coatings play a vital role in advancing product capabilities. However, measurement uncertainties have presented significant challenges. Coatings, with their wide range of materials and applications, often exhibit porosity, making metallographic preparation critical for characterization. Variability in approaches has led to inconsistent results. Learn from our experts! Gain insight into metallographic process best practices, exploring their impact on measurement results and paving the way for improved coating performance.

View Porosity Measurement: Coatings TechNote 7 - 3

Automatic Precision Saw

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

Advanced Vacuum System

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Explore metallographic preparation techniques used for medical implants and stents, including the intricate metal and polymer designs that ensure better lives for their patients. Discover how metallographic cross-sections are conducted to assess the coatings, validating their thickness, and examining any interfacial interactions resulting from added surface modifications. Learn how wire braiding, laser tube machining, and thermal spray coating processes can shape these life-changing devices, and how metallographic preparation unlocks their full potential, making a difference in healthcare.

View Prep of Medical Implants TechNote 7 - 2

Automatic Precision Saw

EpoKwik

Epoxy Mounting System

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Hardness testing is a measure of a material's resistance to penetration or scratching by a harder material. Different testing scales, such as Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop, are used to determine hardness values. These methods involve different types of indenters and calculations based on factors like indentation depth and force applied. This article focuses on Vickers testing and how it is used to map hardness variations in welded and additive manufactured metallic components, as well as in materials with dual or multiphase components exhibiting localized hardness variations.

View Hardness Testing Mapping TechNote 7 - 1

Hardness Testing Software

Vickers & Knoop Hardness Testing System

Micro Hardness Tester

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Efficient sample preparation in a production environment needs to be reliable, repeatable and fast to perform. Given the diverse range of steel varieties designed for specific applications, meticulous control over steel chemistry and properties is essential. Learn more about sample preparation and analysis techniques for commonly used ferrous materials, utilizing cutting-edge equipment and consumables to meet the demands of modern industry.

View Efficient Prep of Ferrous Materials TechNote 6 - 1

AbrasiMatic® 300

Automatic Abrasive Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Automatic Hardness Tester

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Photovoltaic (PV) cell development and commercialization are rapidly advancing, with a focus on producing highly reliable and long-lasting panels. However, the continuous stresses on the metallic interconnects can lead to product quality degradation over time. To enhance module and cell reliability, cross-sectional microscopic analysis is crucial. This TechNote discusses high-quality sample preparation techniques for crystalline silicon solar cells, aiming to identify degradation mechanisms and assess soldering process quality.

View Solar Cell Microstructure Analysis TechNote 5 - 6

SamplKwick

Acrylic Mounting System

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

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Microstructural analysis plays a crucial role in the development of thermal sprayed coatings, enabling accurate observation of coating characteristics in a cost-effective manner. This analysis has been instrumental in the development of coatings used in various applications such as aerospace, automotive, electronics, biotechnology, and petroleum. Accurate microstructural analysis is now more important than ever in the development and quality assessment of these complex coatings. Learn more about proper sectioning, mounting, grinding, and polishing techniques critical for accurate evaluation.

View Thermally Sprayed Coatings TechNote 5 - 5

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

DGD Grinding Discs

Diamond Grinding Discs

Polishing Cloths

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The microstructure of iron-based alloys can be influenced by a number of factors, including composition, carbon content, manufacturing practices, homogeneity, and section size. It is easier to identify heat-treated structures after transformation, but before tempering. The higher the tempering temperature, the more difficult it is to identify the starting structure. However, hardened steels must be tempered, and they are usually examined afterwards, making it more difficult to identify phases and constituents. The identification of specific microstructural constituents, such as bainite and martensite, becomes increasingly challenging as the tempering temperature approaches the lower critical temperature. Read more to learn how isothermally transformed microstructures will be examined as an aid to phase/ constituent identification.

View Isothermally - Transformed Steel TechNote 5 - 4

AbrasiMet® L Pro

14in [356mm] Automatic Abrasive Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Automatic Hardness Tester

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Tool steels, encompassing a diverse range of compositions, play a crucial role in various applications—from plastic molding dies to high-speed steels. Our experts have encountered soft annealed tool steels, heat-treated microstructures featuring high-strength martensite and diverse carbide types, undesirable microstructures in failure analysis work, and more. Preparing tool steels for microstructural examination presents challenges. Sectioning requires delicacy to avoid burning, while edge retention is vital for rating decarburization and examining heat-treated specimens. Additionally, metallographers must differentiate between real voids and those induced during preparation. Learn more about sample preparation and analysis techniques for commonly used tool steels in our article below.

View Prep of Tool Steels TechNote 5 - 3

AbrasiMet® L Pro

14in [356mm] Automatic Abrasive Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Automatic Hardness Tester

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Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) is a technique performed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) that provides a wide range of analytical data, e.g., for crystallographic orientation studies, phase identification, and grain size measurements. Learn why successful preparation with equipment and consumables that minimize damage is required for obtaining reliable and accurate results.

View EBSD TechNote 5 - 2

VibroMet® 2

Vibratory Polisher

MicroCloth

Polishing Cloths

MasterMet

Final Polishing Suspension

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The aluminum-silicon phase diagram plays a vital role in comprehending the characteristics of aluminum alloys, given that silicon often exists as an impurity within these alloys. This diagram provides valuable information regarding the various phases that can develop in an aluminum-silicon alloy based on temperature and composition. In addition to phase formations, this article delves into topics such as the temperatures at which melting and solidification occur, the sequence in which solidification takes place, and the limits of solubility for alloy or impurity additions. Gain insights into the behavior and properties of aluminum alloys containing silicon, facilitating better understanding and informed decision-making in alloy design and processing.

View Al-Si Phase Diagram TechNote 5 - 1

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

MicroCloth

Polishing Cloths

MasterMet

Final Polishing Suspension

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Coronary stents are metallic frames used to prop open arteries during coronary angioplasty. Understanding the interaction between stents and the human body is crucial. Histological and immunohistochemical analyses of stented vessels, especially at the tissue-metal interface, are vital. However, specimen preparation difficulties have hindered such analysis. Explore an experiment into how cutting and grinding, embedding resin, and slide preparation for thin sections of stented arteries helped to innovate techniques with the aim to improve the understanding of stent interactions for better patient outcomes in TechNote Volume 4, Issue 5.

View Intravascular Stent Thin Sections TechNote 4 - 5

Automatic Precision Saw

8-10in [203-254mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Microstructural analysis is a crucial step in the improvement of thermal spray coatings, especially complex coatings that require precise control of their microstructure. Learn about resin bonded diamond surfaces, created to minimize damage caused during grinding, polishing, and lapping of diverse coating types. This innovative surface preserves the flatness and integrity of the overall coating microstructure intact. Explore diverse coatings, from ceramics to metallics, and coatings that find applications in aerospace, automotive, biotechnology, and more. Read more about metallographic preparation for exceptional coating evaluation from our experts.

View Thermally Sprayed Coatings TechNote 4 - 4

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

DGD Grinding Discs

Diamond Grinding Discs

Polishing Cloths

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Welding is a critical joining process that has been widely utilized for over six decades. Like most processes, there is a need to control the process and insure a high-quality end result. Various non-destructive and destructive tests, including metallography, are employed to study welds. Metallography involves grinding and polishing sample spots on the weld's surface to assess its characteristics. Destructive examinations involve removing specimens from welded assemblies or test coupons. Test coupons help qualify welders and ensure the use of appropriate techniques and materials for sound and reliable welds. Adequate sample preparation methods are essential to ensure weld quality and prevent potential failures.

View Welding ferrous materials TechNote 4 - 3

Abrasive Blades

Abrasive Blades for Abrasive Saws

Epoxy Mounting System

Weld Software

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Explore methods for preparing magnesium and its alloys for metallographic examination. Overcoming challenges of low hardness and hard intermetallic phases, our experts introduce procedures for yielding flawless flat surfaces with minimal scratches and matrix deformation. Evaluating various polishing compounds and etchants, our comprehensive approach ensures accurate microstructural examination. Dive into this technical paper for unparalleled insights into magnesium alloys analysis and elevate your research.

View Mg & Its Alloys TechNote 4 - 2

AbrasiMet® M

Manual Abrasive Saw

8-10in [203-254mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Dive into image analysis applications: unleash the power of quantitative image analysis. Discover the impressive capabilities of image analysis systems, including grain size determination, phase percentage measurement, linear measurements, and feature shape and size analysis. From automating grain size determination to assessing graphite shape in ductile iron, explore how image analysis enhances material characterization. Uncover the fundamental steps guiding automated imaging applications, enabling rapid and accurate results. Don't miss this Tech-Note showcasing the vast potential of quantitative image analysis in materials science.

View Quantitative Image Analysis TechNote 4 - 1

Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

for Grinding and Polishing

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Explore microscopic analysis and the intricacies of bone and tissue sample preparation, from Henry Sorby's pioneering thin sectioning technique, to the present-day examination of diverse materials. Examine the challenges of preparing biomaterial specimens, maintaining integrity while preserving bone-implant interfaces. Discover the vital role of polished thin sections, providing in-depth insights into cellular features and implant characteristics under transmitted and reflected light. Learn from our experts in this exploration of microstructural bone and tissue analysis.

View Prep of Bones, Tissues & Other TechNote 3 - 8

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

Advanced Vacuum System

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The intricate microstructures of iron-based alloys are shaped by factors like composition, homogeneity, processing, and section size. Even with the same composition and heat treatment, castings and wrought products exhibit distinct microstructures. Identifying heat-treated structures is easiest after transformation but before tempering, as constituents like bainite and martensite become harder to distinguish at higher tempering temperatures. While nital is widely used for etching, it may not fully reveal all microstructures. Picric acid-based etchants like picral and Vilella's reagent offer excellent alternatives, and 10% sodium metabisulfite (10% SMB) serves as a versatile, safer reagent for steels, combining the benefits of both nital and picral. Learn more about the specimen preparation and analysis of iron-based alloy microstructures.

View Microstructure of Ferrous Alloys TechNote 3 - 7

Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

for Grinding and Polishing

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Delve into the science of sectioning in this insightful article, guided by Buehler experts. Learn how to achieve precise cuts while minimizing damage to materials. Explore the different laboratory cutting devices, from abrasive cutters to precision sectioning saws, and their impact on the final results. Discover the importance of selecting the right wafering blades, whether it's metal-bonded diamond or cubic boron nitride, and how their characteristics influence cutting performance. Optimize cutting for specific materials and unveil the true microstructure without compromising quality.

View Precision Cutting TechNote 3 - 6

Automatic Precision Saw

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Blades for Precision saws and cutters

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Petrography, the microscopic study of rocks and minerals, has evolved beyond its traditional scope. Today, it analyzes a wide range of materials, from ceramics to polymers. Petrographic techniques involve preparing specimens as thin sections or polished bulk samples. Thin sections, less than 30μm thick, are viewed under transmitted polarized light. Polished bulk specimens are examined using reflected light. Proper specimen preparation is critical to reveal the true microstructure. Sectioning, the initial step, must be carefully executed, as damage incurred here can be difficult to rectify during subsequent grinding and polishing. Precision control over cutting parameters minimizes damage. Subsequent steps include grinding, polishing, and microscopic examination.

View Petrographic Examination TechNote 3 - 5

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

Advanced Vacuum System

VibroMet® 2

Vibratory Polisher

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Titanium and its alloys are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and characterized by stable room temperature phases - alpha alloys, alpha-beta alloys, and beta alloys, with two additional categories: near alpha and near beta. Although similar to iron with many heat treat similarities, Titanium and its alloys are often more difficult to prepare for metallographic analysis than steels. Discover how effective preparation techniques using a three-step metallographic procedure can successfully prepare Titanium and its alloys.

View Sample Prep of Ti and Alloys TechNote 3 - 3

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

DGD Grinding Discs

Diamond Grinding Discs

Polishing Cloths

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Discover the versatility of aluminum and its alloys, boasting light weight, excellent strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and cost-effectiveness. Enhance their strength through alloying, cold working, and precipitation hardening. This TechNote article focuses on cast aluminum-silicon alloys, increasingly used in the automotive industry. Three Al-Si alloys with varying silicon percentages were studied, each presenting unique challenges for metallographic preparation. Explore the complexities of these alloys, from shrinkage cavities in Al-7.15% Si to relief control issues posed by large primary Si particles in the hypereutectic alloy.

View Cast AL-Si Alloys TechNote 3 - 2

MasterMet Colloidal Silica

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

Final Polishing Suspension

Polishing Cloths

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For microelectronics, the evaluation of defects often demands a direct microscopic cross-section examination, serving as a final inspection after nondestructive methods. While borrowing techniques from other industries has yielded success, the rationale behind choosing specific sectioning and mounting preparation methods for the microelectronics field is often overlooked. In this edition of TechNotes, our experts explore a two-part journey to distill essential concepts in microelectronic material preparation, beginning with cutting and mounting techniques, and the variables of consumable choices crucial for achieving necessary results.

View Microelectronics: Part 1 TechNote 3 - 1

Automatic Precision Saw

EpoKwik

Epoxy Mounting System

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Unlock the secrets of precious metals used in jewelry through this insightful article on metallography. Explore the challenges of preparing and etching these soft, yet resistant materials. Discover expert-recommended techniques to minimize deformation during preparation, including the use of low-speed saws and delicate grinding. Learn about the potent etchants vital for revealing the microstructure of gold, silver, platinum, and palladium alloys.

View Precious Metals for Jewelry TechNote 2 - 5

EpoMet

Compression Mounting Compound

MetaDi

Diamond Polishing Suspension

Advanced Vacuum System

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Discover the evolution of image analysis in this informative piece by Dr. Dennis Hetzner from The Timken Company. Explore the journey from the first microscopes to modern automated systems that drastically expedite measurements and calculations. Trace the development of image analysis systems from analog to digital, and learn about factors affecting accuracy and repeatability. Delve into the challenges of gray-level selection and edge sharpening, and grasp the concept of field and feature measurements in image analysis systems.

View Quantitative Image Analysis: 1 TechNote 2 - 4

Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

for Grinding and Polishing

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Cast irons boast diverse microstructural constituents influenced by composition and heat treatment. Retaining the graphite phase during preparation poses difficulties, as does controlling micro shrinkage cavities during etching. Metallographic examination ranges from qualitative assessments to quantitative image analysis for phase amounts, graphite shapes, and nodule density. Modern polishing materials and techniques effectively reveal cast iron microstructures, addressing graphite retention with ease. Crossed polarized light aids graphite substructure observation, while etching brings matrix constituents to light. Delve into this enlightening study, with work by Janina Radzikowska from the Foundry Research Institute in Kraków, Poland, to unlock the complexities and solutions of cast iron microstructures.

View Cast Iron Foundry Alloys TechNote 2 - 2

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

MetaDi

Diamond Polishing Suspension

Weld Software

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Learn from our expert, George Vander Voort, as he discusses the evolution of hot mounting from this antiquated, but historically significant article through his experiences using various polymer compounds for mounting specimens. Explore the properties and benefits of different mounting compounds, such as Diallyl Phthalate, TransOptic, and EpoMet, a compression mounting epoxy, known for its superior edge protection. The distinction between thermosetting and thermoplastic resins is explained, emphasizing how heat generated during grinding and polishing affects their behavior. Click the link to learn more.

View Hot Mounting Compounds TechNote 2 - 1

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

8-12in [203-305mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Weld Software

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In the study of printed wiring board design, surface-mounted components alongside through-holes presents challenges. Traditional micro sectioning, once reliable for quality control, now struggles to detect hidden anomalies beneath smaller, densely packed components. Often, it becomes overly destructive, raising doubts about the reliability of microstructural analysis. This TechNote introduces a robust methodology to perform micro sectioning with precision.

View Microsectioning Soldered Connect TechNote 1 - 7

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

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Historical hardness tests began with scratch testing methods, evolving from Réaumur's 1722 scale to Osmond and Troost's advanced approach in 1895. Johann Brinell introduced indentation hardness testing in 1900, paving the way for later microindentation tests by La Gris and Vickers. The Rockwell and Knoop tests followed, with microindentation hardness providing unique insights. Today, nanoindentation hardness testing is emerging for microelectronics and composite materials, demanding stringent environmental control. Read more about the history of hardness testing and its evolution through the link below.

View Intro to Microindentation TechNote 1 - 6

Hardness Testing Software

Vickers & Knoop Hardness Testing System

Micro Hardness Tester

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Historically, metallography relied on qualitative observations of materials' microstructures. However, this approach lacked precision and reproducibility. The advent of quantitative methods, such as stereology, addressed these limitations. Stereology allows for precise quantification of microstructures to quantify various aspects. Techniques like point counting and planimetry provide insights into phase proportions and grain sizes. Sampling and proper specimen preparation are crucial for accurate results. In this article, George Vander Voort discusses his experience through the history of quantitative metallography.

View Intro to Quantitative Metallgraphy TechNote 1- 5

Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

for Grinding and Polishing

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The reflected light microscope, widely employed for studying metals' microstructure, plays a critical role in understanding materials' properties. Metallographers assess the microstructure to identify phases, their quantities, sizes, spacings, and arrangements. Proper specimen preparation is crucial, ensuring a polished, undamaged surface. Learn from our expert, George Vander Voort, as he discusses the history and aspects of best practices in imaging analysis.

View Bright Field Illumination TechNote 1 - 3

Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

for Grinding and Polishing

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Explore thermal spray coatings and their critical role in enhancing substrate materials' resistance to oxidation, corrosion, and wear. Learn about metallographic examination, where accurate characterization of coated components' microstructures is essential, including the challenges posed by brittle coatings and varying hardness values, and how metallographic preparation techniques ensure precise analysis. Through consistent and accurate results of proper metallographic techniques, using silicon carbide abrasive paper, diamond paste, and sub-micron aluminum oxide powder, unlock the potential of thermal spray coatings with this enlightening TechNote.

View Prep Thermally Sprayed Coatings TechNote 1 - 2

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

MetaDi

Diamond Polishing Suspension

Advanced Vacuum System

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Fastener manufacturing requires the highest quality compliance. Verification tests can include microstructural analysis, hardness testing, decarburization depth, and more. The ability to obtain an accurate analysis of fastener specimens requires both the selection of an effective preparation procedure and the equipment that produces well prepared specimens rapidly, economically, and as flat as possible. Learn more about established test protocols, and how proper preparation techniques can help your metallographic preparation and analysis of fastener manufacturing.

View Fastener Metallography TechNote 1 - 1

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Composite materials are finding wider applications due to their high strength, light weight, and corrosion resistance. FRPs (fiber reinforced polymers) are one of the most widely used type of composites. Structural composites can often be manufactured into hybrid laminate structures with the addition of metallic inserts to improve their strength. This article explores the metallographic preparation and examination of fiber-reinforced structures and the involved analysis of separation between constituent components, porosity, and transitions between components.

View Fiber reinforced composites SumNote 5 - 2

Automatic Precision Saw

Advanced Vacuum System

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Micro-sectioning is a destructive technique used to evaluate the quality of a printed circuit board by exposing a cross-sectional view of a sample’s microstructure at a selective plane. This practice is a valuable tool for quality control in PCB manufacturing. To avoid wasting actual production boards, test coupons are introduced in each production panel. These coupons are extracted, mounted, and ground/polished to the plane of interest for quality control tests. By evaluating the cross-sectional view of the microstructure, it is possible to identify defects and ensure that the PCB meets the required specifications. Learn more about the challenges presented by micro-sectioning PCBs and how to overcome the conventional problems through modern methods.

View PCB for Quality Control SumNote 5 - 1

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

SamplKwick

Acrylic Mounting System

for Printed Wiring Boards

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Accurate sectioning of electronic components for quality control or failure analysis requires careful attention to reveal the true structure, free from preparation-induced artifacts. Discover effective methods to ensure defect-free results and enhance quality control. Explore historical techniques like punch and bandsaws, along with their limitations. Embrace modern advancements, such as the IsoMet High Speed Pro, offering automated movement and precise laser alignment for superior sectioning. Our experts share insights to elevate your electronic component analysis skills. Gain in-depth knowledge of advanced techniques and best practices to achieve exceptional outcomes. Learn more!

View Sectioning electronic comps SumNote 4 - 3

EpoKwick

Epoxy Mounting System

Automatic Precision Saw

Diamond Polishing Suspension

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Nuclear radiation containment chamber/vessels, known as Hot Cells, play a crucial role in safeguarding workers and the environment from the potent radioactivity of materials within. These chambers enable secure handling of materials via remote manipulators, all while providing a clear view of the processes through a shielded glass window. Space and material waste are both critical considerations in hot cell preparation. Our IsoMet Low Speed precision cutter and MiniMet grinder and polisher use less consumables than standard benchtop machines, greatly reducing disposal costs. In addition, these machines boast a significantly smaller footprint, allowing you to optimize your valuable workspace. Click here to learn how our innovative IsoMet LS and MiniMet machines can revolutionize your operations while mitigating space and waste concerns

View Hot Cell Prep SumNote 4 - 2

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

MiniMet® 1000

Compact Grinder Polisher

Diamond Polishing Suspension

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In the highly competitive cutting blades industry, it is vital for the blade to have sufficient hardness to retain an edge, while too hard can cause brittle failure. Accurate testing for hardness is therefore vital to ensuring a high-quality product. Testing the hardness of the cutting blades becomes challenging as indents must be made and measured accurately, using low loads and correspondingly small indents. This requires proper specimen preparation and careful use of hardness testing equipment. Learn how metallographic preparation and microhardness test processes can impact hardness testing for cutting blades in the manufacturing industry.

View Cutting Edge Hardness SumNote 4 - 1

DGD Color

Diamond Grinding Discs

Automatic Hardness Tester

Hardness Testing Software

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Looking for ways to save time and improve the accuracy of your Vickers testing? Automation with our DiaMet ® software can help. We conducted a time study evaluation and found that automation can save up to 86% of the time required to set up, make, and measure Vickers indents. In addition to saving time, automation can also improve the accuracy of testing by eliminating operator variability. Our system uses trace functions and templates to ensure that parts are aligned correctly, and it also provides real-time visibility of part failure.

View Automotive Crank Pins Time Study for HardnessTtesting SumNote 3 - 2

Hardness Testing Software

Vickers & Knoop Hardness Testing System

Micro Hardness Tester

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Micro-sectioning of copper-plated through-holes in printed circuit boards is crucial for examining electrical interconnects and substrates. Whether for routine process control, MIL compliance, thermal analysis, or RoHS impact research, micro cross-sections are indispensable. Challenges arise from diverse materials, including epoxy, solder, acrylic adhesive, copper, and glass. Precise pinning, consumable selection, and automation reduce errors, ensuring a centered sectioning plane. For small-diameter holes, like those of 0.004” or more, semi-automated preparation with the PC Met Small Hole Accessory improves accuracy through individual coupon pinning

View PCB Micro Sectioning SumNote 2 - 3

PC Met

for Printed Wiring Boards

8-10in [203-254mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

SamplKwick

Acrylic Mounting System

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Flexible circuits are used in a variety of electronic devices, from phones and digital cameras to automobiles and personal computers. They are made of a polymer cover layer and base film of either polyimide or polyester. Metallography plays an integral role in analyzing and understanding the effects of improvements in the internal structure of flex circuits. By examining cross-sections of the circuits, it is possible to identify cracks, voids, conducting layers, and interconnections. This information can be used to improve the quality of the products. Explore specialty equipment and methods that can be used to simplify the tasks of these processes.

View Prep of Flexible Circuits SumNote 2 - 1

Epoxy Mounting System

Advanced Vacuum System

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Concrete, a favored construction material for over a century, boasts low cost, remarkable strength, and enduring durability, making it ideal for highways, bridges, buildings, and various structures. Concrete is a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste, with cement binding the aggregates. For concrete to endure freezing cycles, controlling air voids distribution is crucial. These microscopic voids provide free space within the paste to relieve hydraulic pressure when concrete freezes, preventing cracking due to water's volume expansion and eventual failure of the structure. To assess air voids, the concrete surface must undergo grinding and polishing while maintaining the true void structure. As outlined here, suitable preparation steps and automated image techniques can further accentuate void-paste contrast.

View Preparation of Concrete SumNote 1 - 6

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

Advanced Vacuum System

EpoHeat

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Coronary stents are essential metallic frames expanded inside arteries to restore blood flow to the heart muscle. Charles Dotter, the inventor, refined and developed stents since 1969, creating the expandable nitinol stent in 1983. Despite their widespread use, comprehending the interaction between stents and the human body remains a crucial clinical concern. Thorough histological and immunohistochemical analyses are required to study different stent designs, materials, coatings, and drug treatments, especially at the tissue-metal interface. Discovery how proper preparation techniques can enhance understanding of cellular responses to stenting and allows for close evaluation of expansion characteristics, leading to improved stent designs.

View Intravascular Thin Sections SumNote 1 - 5

Advanced Vacuum System

Diamond Precision Blades

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Cement clinkers, vital components of concrete, are produced by heating a mixture of limestone or lime-bearing samples with silica-bearing materials in a kiln at around 1500 °C, resulting in nodules known as "clinkers." Ground with gypsum, these clinkers form fine cement powder that bond with water and aggregates to create concrete. A well-prepared clinker cross-section, examined under a microscope, offers critical insights into phase size and shape, mix homogeneity, alteration products, and porosity level. This article delves into optimizing the specimen preparation process, encompassing best practices for sample mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching, ultimately ensuring product quality control and cost-effectiveness.

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Epoxy Mounting System

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

TexMet

Polishing Cloths

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Petrography, examining rocks and minerals under a microscope, assists in identifying and characterizing properties. Two specimen types are prepared: thin sections and polished bulk specimens. Polished bulk specimens, akin to metallographic samples, are examined with reflected light microscopes. Thin sections are viewed using transmitted polarized light microscopes. Creating transparent thin sections is a more intricate process involving sectioning, vacuum impregnation, grinding, cementing to a slide, re-sectioning, and grinding/polishing. Thin sections, approximately 30µm thick with precise parallelism, present a greater challenge than polished bulk specimens. Petrographic analysis, crucial for geology and material science, relies on these meticulous preparation techniques to reveal critical microstructures.

View Petrographic Thin Sections SumNote 1 - 3

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

Epoxy Mounting Systems

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Dive into the research of fish age determination through otolith microstructure analysis. Otoliths, the inner ear bones of fish, are used to study age and growth patterns, species dynamics, and environmental influences. Refining techniques for otolith removal, preparation, and analysis are crucial for accurate research. Our expert lab team and application specialists have honed specific approaches for this endeavor. Explore common procedures and best practices, and gain knowledge from Buehler's seasoned experts. Join us on this intriguing journey into the underwater world of fish studies!

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EpoHeat

Epoxy Mounting System

5in [127mm] Gravity-fed Precision Saw

MiniMet® 1000

Compact Grinder Polisher

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Technological advancements have revolutionized bone and tissue repair. Hip implants and stents effectively address previously challenging issues. Biocompatibility is a crucial concern for successful implantation, ensuring acceptance by the body without rejection. At the same time, surgical implants face potential degradation due to the body's biochemical environment. To assess compatibility, microscopic examination is essential. However, preparing specimens for analysis presents challenges, as bones are spongy and regenerating, while implants are hard and non-degradable. Learn more about two methods, thin sections, and cross-sections, being used to maintain specimen integrity and prevent damage during microscopic analysis.

View Bone Cross-Sections w/ Implants SumNote 1 - 1

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

PetroBond®

Thin Section Fixture

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Metallographic preparation and analyses are critical in quality control processes for fastener manufacturers. Proper techniques and evaluation of microstructure ensures that the required standards and specifications are met. Efficiency, speed, and accuracy are all important to an effective approach. This article aims to provide a summary of typical recommendations and key considerations useful to a variety of fastener manufacturing.

View Metallographic Prep of Fasteners - Blog

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Buehler specializes in welding and material preparation and analysis, offering sectioning, mounting, grinding & polishing, imaging & analysis, and hardness testing products. Proper metallographic preparation is crucial for accurate analysis, as improper techniques can lead to component rejection or failures in the field. Ensuring the true structure is revealed without preparation-induced artifacts is essential. Modern material preparation processes offer improved quality and efficiency compared to traditional methods. Understanding the approach, challenges, and process development is increasingly important. Benefit from the expertise of Buehler's experts, who provide applications and lab support, or learn processes by specimen type through our Material Solutions section.

View Weld Preparation & Analysis Syllabus - Blog

Automatic Precision Saw

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Metallographic etching unveils hidden metal structures not visible after polishing. Some materials, like inclusions in steel and graphite in cast iron, are best analyzed without etching. In certain nonferrous alloys with non-cubic crystal structures, grain size can be effectively seen in the as-polished state using polarized light, as seen in the microstructure of cold-drawn zirconium. Learn from our experts. Click to learn more about best practices for metallographic etching procedures, selective etching, heat tinting, and more.

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Weld Software

Nikon Microscopes

Polishing Consumables

Grinding and Polishing

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Buehler is proud to show our appreciation to NASA and the esteemed researchers for their exceptional contributions to sample preparation of lunar specimens from Apollo 11 and 12 missions. This article showcases the meticulous techniques used in creating thin sections of these precious samples with our high-quality equipment. Today, Buehler continues to be committed to excellence and innovation in materials preparation for space exploration and beyond. Read our original AB Metal Digest article from 1970 to learn more.

View Buehler Part of History 50 Year Anniversary of the Lunar Landing - Technical Article

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

Thin Section Saw/Cup Grinder

EcoMet® 30 Semi-Auto

8-12in [203-305mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Titanium is a strong, lightweight metal with a high melting point and corrosion resistance. It is used in a variety of applications, including aerospace, medical, and automotive. The preparation of titanium specimens for testing requires careful attention to detail. Learn from our experts. Follow the guidelines in this article and ensure that your specimens are prepared correctly and that your test results are accurate. For more information, or information on specimen preparation on other materials, refer to our Buehler Material Solutions.

View Ti Specimen Prep & Testing - Blog

Cold Mounting

Cold Mounting Consumables

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

Diamond Polishing Suspension

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The preparation of magnesium and its alloys for metallographic examination requires careful attention to detail. Due to the low hardness of the matrix and the high hardness of precipitate phases, relief problems, where the precipitate phases appear brighter than the matrix, may occur. Follow our guidelines and minimize the problems associated with relief and ensure that your specimens are prepared correctly. For further insights and more specimen preparation tips on various materials, explore Buehler Material Solutions.

View Magnesium Metallographic Prep - Blog

Precision Blades for Sectioning

Cold Mounting

Cold Mounting Consumables

for Grinding and Polishing

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The Rockwell hardness test is based on the measurement of the depth to which an indenter is forced by a heavy (major) load beyond the depth resulting from a previously applied preliminary (minor) load. One chief advantage of the Rockwell test is its swift and direct results, eliminating the need for secondary dimensional measurements. Discover the best practices of Rockwell hardness testing and safeguard against common errors that may arise. Dive further into the world of hardness testing and gain invaluable insights by exploring our hardness testing offerings.

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Wilson® Rockwell® 574

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Rockwell® 2150

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Test Blocks

Hardness Test Blocks

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Unlock the secrets of Aluminum specimen preparation and overcome deformation-induced challenges. Aluminum, a remarkably soft and ductile metal, poses specific preparation demands, especially in purer compositions. In this article, we offer expert recommendations for preparing Aluminum specimens tailored to its unique characteristics. Both four-step and five-step methods for preparation will be covered, accompanied by invaluable tips to ensure seamless specimen preparation and testing. Ready to enhance your expertise in specimen preparation for various materials? Discover a wealth of knowledge with Buehler Material Solutions.

View AL Metallograhic Speciment Prep & Testing - Blog

AbrasiMet® M

Manual Abrasive Saw

8-10in [203-254mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

VibroMet® 2

Vibratory Polisher

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Gage Repeatability & Reproducibility, commonly known as a GR&R, is a statistical method used in process control (SPC) to measure variations made in hardness tests by the same operator using the same instrument on the same part under the same conditions. It is a measure of how consistent the measurements are from one reading to the next. Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility is important because it can affect the accuracy of measurements. This can lead to incorrect decisions being made about the quality of a product or process. Learn from our experts. Read this article to learn about the importance of repeatability and reproducibility, and review expert tips on what can be done to improve GR&R. Dive further into the world of hardness testing and gain invaluable insights by exploring our hardness testing offerings.

View Gage Repeatability & Reproducibility - Blog

Wilson® Rockwell® 574

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Rockwell® 2150

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Test Blocks

Hardness Test Blocks

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Hardness testing is a vital aspect of analyzing component properties, offering valuable insights into performance, durability, strength, flexibility, and capabilities of various materials. From raw materials to finished goods, determining a sample's hardness value is essential in today's competitive global market where accuracy and productivity are paramount. Discover the efficiency and reliability of automatic traversing and imaging analysis in conjunction with two common hardness tests, Vickers and Knoop, for obtaining critical material information.

View Advance Techniques for Hardness Testing - Blog

Hardness Testing Software

Vickers & Knoop Hardness Testing System

Rockwell® 2150

Rockwell Hardness Tester

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Hardness testing and imaging analysis play a pivotal role in analyzing component properties, providing invaluable insights into material performance, durability, strength, flexibility, and capabilities. Whether it's raw materials or finished goods, accurately determining a sample's hardness value is indispensable in today's competitive global market, where precision and productivity reign supreme. Explore the efficiency and reliability of automatic implements, including automatic traversing and imaging analysis, paired with hardness tests to obtain critical material information.

View Image Analysis for Hardness Testing - Blog

Hardness Testing Software

Vickers & Knoop Hardness Testing System

Micro Hardness Tester

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When micro-sectioning for precise microscopic examination, the electronics industry relies on targeted techniques for quality control, failure analysis, and research. Typically performed manually due to varying feature levels in samples, advanced systems like the Buehler PC-Met offer high-volume capabilities when surfaces align. This article explores the necessity of such methods, particularly focusing on their application in ensuring the quality of through-plated holes in electronics production.

View Smarter Sample Preparation - Electronics - Technical Article

Epoxy Mounting System

8-10in [203-254mm] Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

for Printed Wiring Boards

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Explore the world of copper alloys with this article on metallographic techniques. Learn how sample preparation is crucial in uncovering the hidden microstructure of copper and discover both traditional and modern methods for sample preparation. Color etching is showcased for its ability to unveil the intricate details of copper alloys. The article also features micrographs obtained through contemporary methods, offering valuable insights into the alloys' microstructure. Uncover the importance of using precise metallographic techniques to enhance copper alloy product performance and reliability.

View Copper Color Metallography - Technical Article

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Silicone Carbide Grinding Paper

Diamond Polishing Suspension

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Superalloys, intricate combinations of Fe-Ni, Ni-, and Co-base compositions, boast a diverse microstructure influenced by various phases formed during heat treatment or service exposure. This article, written by George Vander Voort, explores the essential metallographic sample preparation steps—mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching—to accurately reveal the structure of these alloys, considering alloy composition, heat treatment, and microstructural phases. Though primarily focused on iron-Nickel and Nickel-base alloys, the insights shared are applicable to Co-base alloys as well. For additional specimen preparation tips on various materials, explore our Buehler Material Solutions.

View Metallography of Superalloys - Technical Article

EpoMet

Compression Mounting Compound

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Micro-sectioning has evolved into an essential component of printed wiring board (PWB) quality assurance due to the possibility of concealed, subsurface defects and the need for process control. As a technique used for metallographic examination, micro-sectioning allows for internal PCB structure analysis and defect identification. In this article, learn how mastering micro-sectioning ensures accurate test results and correct sample preparation, unveiling the PCB's hidden insights. Looking for more information or specimen preparation guidance for different materials? Check out our Buehler material solutions.

View Printed Wiring Board Paper - Technical Article

Gravity-fed Precision Saw

for Printed Wiring Boards

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Embark on a captivating journey through a century of hardness testing development in this insightful retrospective. Witness the evolution of techniques from scratch testing to motorized testers and to fully automated, computer-controlled systems. Explore the groundbreaking Rockwell indentation test, revolutionizing hardness testing with direct-reading results. Unravel the pivotal role played by Charles H. Wilson in enhancing the Rockwell method, leading to rapid adoption worldwide. Discover how Buehler, backed by Illinois Tool Works (ITW), continues to advance the Wilson brand with cutting-edge hardness testers and software like DiaMet. Join us to celebrate the legacy of Wilson and the future of hardness testing.

View A Century of Wilson Hardness Published Advanced Materials & Processes - Technical Article

Brinell

Brinell Hardness Tester

Rockwell® 574

Rockwell Hardness Tester

Vickers Knoop Hardness Tester

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For medical device manufacturers and researchers, Buehler’s equipment and expertise drive progress in material analysis. Since 1936, we've been pioneering the field. Our wide-ranging capabilities empower labs for critical testing in medical electronics, histology, and fiber optics. We offer specialized equipment and consumables, ensuring rigorous analysis in applications ranging from orthopedic implants to microscopic cross-sections. Join us for educational practices that provide in-depth support, enhancing your understanding of the materials that shape the future of healthcare.

View Biomedical - Technical Article

Automatic Precision Saw

Diamond Precision Blades

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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The AbrasiMet L Pro* automatic cutter is designed to deliver high performance with advanced features that streamline sectioning tasks. This article explores common challenges in abrasive cutting and how the AbrasiMet L Pro overcomes them, providing solutions for improved blade performance, reduced cutting time, and enhanced sample quality. Learn how its smart adjustments, cutting technology, and user-friendly design can remove the guesswork from your sectioning process. Discover the full details here and enhance your lab’s cutting efficiency.

View Reducing Cutting Time with the AbrasiMet L Pro

AbrasiMet® L Pro

Automatic Abrasive Cutter

Abrasive Vising

Abrasive Blades

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View Automated Microsectioning of Printed Wiring Boards TechNote 9 - 1

IsoMet 1000

Gravity-fed Precision Sectioning Machine

PC-Met Precision Wiring Board Accessory

Silicon Carbide Grinding Papers

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Explore how metallurgy plays a role in ensuring durability and reliability in EV innovations. Learn about key components from motors and cooling systems to electrical components and battery packs, and how materials testing contributes to performance. Discover why microstructural analysis and weld assessments drive engineering excellence.

View Driving Reliability in EVs: The Science Behind Your Smooth Ride 9 - 3

AbrasiMet L Pro

Automatic Abrasive Sectioning Machine

DiaMet

Hardness Testing Made Easy

AutoMet 250 Pro

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Vertical interconnect accesses (vias) play a critical role in printed circuit boards, enabling electrical connections between layers and ensuring the functionality of today’s advanced electronics. However, these tiny components are prone to defects like voids, cracks, and misalignments, which can compromise performance. Learn how metallographic assessments uncover hidden issues, ensure manufacturing quality, and support industries like aerospace and automotive.

View Unlocking the Secrets of PCBs: A Metallographic Assessment of Vias 9 - 4

IsoMet 1000

Gravity-fed Precision Sectioning Machine

SimpliVac

Advanced Vacuum System

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Ensure the reliability of your electronic components with metallographic analysis of solder joints. This article dives into the critical role solder joints play in connecting electronic parts to PCBs, their vulnerability to failure, and how metallography can detect defects like voids, cracks, and cold solder joints. Learn how early identification of these issues through precise analysis can improve durability and performance in industries like automotive, aerospace, and consumer electronics. Discover common defects, the impact of lead-free solders, and effective remediation techniques to enhance product quality and avoid costly failures. Read the full article to optimize your solder joint manufacturing process.

View Unlocking Reliability: The Metallographic Assessment of Solder Joints in Electronic Components 9 - 5

Automatic Precision Sectioning Machine

Epoxy Mounting System

AutoMet 250 Pro

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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Integrated Circuits (ICs) are at the core of modern technology. But how do you ensure their reliability in mission-critical applications? Metallographic delayering provides a detailed, layer-by-layer analysis of ICs, helping detect defects, ensure quality control, and even assist in reverse engineering. This technique is essential for failure analysis in sectors like aerospace, automotive, and electronics. Learn how Buehler’s expert tools and techniques help uncover design flaws, detect manufacturing issues, and verify product integrity. Ready to enhance your IC analysis? Contact our lab team to explore our solutions.

View Unlocking the Layers: A Metallographic Exploration of Integrated Circuits (ICs) 9 - 6

Automatic Precision Sectioning Machine

Epoxy Mounting System

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

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EV battery packs are intricate assemblies requiring precise metallurgical control to enhance performance, safety, and longevity. Engineers face challenges such as welding dissimilar metals (Al, Cu, Ni, Fe), managing thermal expansion mismatches, and mitigating corrosion risks. Innovations in metallurgy, including AI-driven monitoring and new alloy compositions, continue to drive EV battery advancements. Understanding these factors is crucial for improving battery reliability and efficiency in the evolving EV industry.

View Metallurgical Challenges in EV Battery Pack Manufacturing 9 - 7

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Automatic Precision Sectioning Machine

OmniMet

OmniMet Modular Imaging System

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Optimizing stator materials is essential for enhancing EV motor efficiency, performance, and reliability. Advanced materials such as high-silicon steels, alloyed electrical steels, amorphous metals, and nanocrystalline alloys minimize core losses and improve thermal stability. Techniques like powder metallurgy and stress-relief annealing further refine performance. Metallographic analysis, including microstructural evaluation and non-destructive testing, ensures material integrity. Future advancements in nanostructured alloys, additive manufacturing, and AI-driven material design will drive innovation in stator materials, shaping the next generation of efficient EV motors.

View Driving Efficiency through the Metallurgical Assessment of Stator Materials for EV Motors 9 - 8

SimpliMet 4000

Compression Hot Mounting Machine

AutoMet 300 Pro

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher

Epoxy Mounting System

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Optimizing stator windings in electric motors is critical for efficiency and reliability, particularly in electric vehicles. Advances in materials such as copper, aluminum, and insulation coatings enhance conductivity and durability. Metallographic analysis evaluates grain structure, weld integrity, and defect detection, ensuring quality and performance. Proper sample preparation, including sectioning, mounting, and etching, is essential for accurate assessment. By leveraging these techniques, manufacturers can enhance motor efficiency, prevent overheating, and drive innovation in electric mobility.

View Metallurgical Assessment of Stator Windings in Electric Motors 9 - 9

Semi-Automatic Grinder-Polisher